Historians are often divided when they write about Andalusia; there is a certain ambiguity as to whether it was invaded by Islamic armies in 711CE¹, or whether the most southern tip of Europe was integrated with the Islamic culture beforehand. The Arab and Berber armies landed in Gibraltar led by a general named Tariq (who the island is named after ‘Jabal Tariq’ – Tariq’s rock). Within eight years the entire Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic Sharia rule. In 732 an attempt to expand north-east across the Pyrenees towards France led to the battle of Tours where the invaders were defeated and subsequently retreated back behind the mountain range of the Pyrenees. Consequently they established an independent Islamic empire known as Al-Andalus; present-day Andalusia. The inhabitants of Al-Andalus were a diverse racial community made up of Moors, Jews, Christians and Visigoths (a Germanic tribe). They developed a hybrid culture; it amalgamated creativity with a common pool of resources, manifesting an aesthetic style influenced by the need to represent the ruling party. The architectural form which was developed was Islamic in inspiration but “native” to Andalus, and consequently became known as “Moorish”. Like the civilisations preceding them, the Moors left their legacy in many forms ranging from spiritual to the theoretical and physical.

The architecture left in Andalus was a key component of the Moorish legacy.

The architecture left in Andalus was a key component of the Moorish legacy.

Buildings like the Nasrid palace of the Alhambra and the Great Mosque in Cordoba are well known and widely recorded throughout history. Rather than looking at these examples and reviewing what has been documented about them over the centuries, it seems more advantageous to discuss lesser known buildings that were constructed in a similar fashion during the same period. The architecture of this period in Spain is usually referred to as Moorish; however before this term was ascribed to it, the culture emerged under the auspices of the Cordoba caliphate, which later lead on to the familiar Moorish movement. This ‘Moorish-ness’ was the product of two eras, the first providing a legacy of Christian workmanship within the terms of Islamic architecture, and the converse². The two styles are known as Mozarabic (derived from the word musta’rib meaning to be arabised , which generally refers to Christians who worked and lived in Islamic territories usually within the Iberian Peninsula) and Mudejar (a distortion of the Arabic word Mudajjan meaning "domesticated"). The former essentially paralleled its predecessors, which were never really elaborated on, while the latter developed during and after the re-conquest, and was more explorative. The two movements were controlled by the ruling class, and design characteristics were dependent on the function of different types of buildings as which will be discussed in this paper.

Early Islamic architecture within Spain and North Africa was erected under the Umayyad Emirate which lasted between 756-1031. Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756–88) made Cordoba his capital uniting al-Andalus under his rule and establishing diplomatic bonds with the northern Christian kingdoms in North Africa and the Byzantine Empire; while maintaining cultural contact with the Abbasids in Baghdad. Under this caliphate, Cordoba became a major cultural centre with libraries of a volume unrealised in medieval Europe. Colleges offered education from scholars (of the status of ibn Rushd known as Averroes the physician, the jurist and philosopher who revived Aristotelian thought). This ‘civilised and cultured’ mentality informed the construction of housing, mosques, educational institutes, public spaces, military fortresses and palaces which were constructed for the caliphs themselves. James Burke writes in his book, The Day the Universe Changed, 'There were half a million inhabitants, living in 113,000 houses. There were 700 mosques and 300 public baths spread throughout the city and its twenty-one suburbs. The streets were paved and lit... There were bookshops and more than seventy libraries.'³ Unfortunately the civil wars within Spain at this time, resulted in finally destroying much contemporary architecture, and many buildings were converted or adapted during reconquest. The Aljafariya palace in Saragossa, the Alcazar in Seville, the Giralda tower in Seville and the Medina al-Zahra were all altered in their physical form and tailored for a new purpose. The Aljafariya and Alcazar were modified on three occasions, and alternatively served as quarters for the caliph and amir, and subsequently, the kings and queens of Spain. The Giralda tower was once the Minaret to the mosque in Seville but now is the bell tower to the Cathedral which stands there instead.

Medina al--Zahra
Medina al-Zahra (city of Zahra) was built during 933-980 under the rule of Abdur Rahman III who controlled the land from his emirate in Cordoba. This residence was similar to the Cordoba mosque built by his father which was constructed in many stages. Named after his wife Zahra, it began as a secondary residential and administrative centre eight km southwest from the city of Cordoba. Later on it became his main ‘court’ when the mosque was consecrated in 947 and the royal mint was relocated to this palace complex. These constructions elaborate many key points of what was to become the Cordovan caliphate. It is clear that their culture had sources in northern Islamic Africa.

These constructions elaborate many key points of what was to become the Cordovan caliphate. It is clear that their culture had sources in northern Islamic Africa.

The aesthetic and cultural influence was strong enough to condition construction, not only mainland, but also in its colonies. The style of building was a well established one which exemplified cultural form. The construction at Medina al-Zahra was costly and time consuming, but finance and manpower was an index of political power.

Ibn Khatib the historian recorded that around 100,000 workers were present at the height of building activity. 4,324 marble columns were imported mainly from Tunisia and marble basins along with golden sculptures inlaid with pearls came from Byzantium and Syria⁴. Alongside the elaborate interior, lay an intricate external environment provided with irrigation systems for gardens, baths and houses, which came from the mountains to the north. A long canal partly ran underground, and in some places aqueducts were constructed supported on the famous horseshoe arches. The entire compound was virtually a town which was surrounded by towers encompassing a total area of 1,500 by 750 meters constituted on three terraces carved into the range of hills known as the Sierra Morena. The population of this city soared from 1,200 to 20,000 within a couple of years; at its entrance on the lowest terrace the Mosque was situated together with administrative buildings and quarters for the military. Its central terrace consisted of the gardens, pools and pavilions, while the uppermost location was home to various larger pavilions and the royal palace itself. The larger houses were arranged around a patio and reception halls were richly decorated with marble and glass mosaics. Visitors would wait in these reception areas, entertained by servants and guards of honour. Legend has it that within this area were pools of quicksilver, which when disturbed reflected the artistry of the surrounding walls, creating a kaleidoscope effect to empress the caliph’s audience (while they took refreshments).

The room which survives today is the throne room or Salon Rico which has been restored by historians. The entire complex was reduced to rubble in the 11th Century by Almoravid troops. Acting as the throne room it has three naves separated by two arcades of horseshoe arches (which are near identical of those used in the Cordoba mosque) sitting on marble columns with intricate capitals supporting a pyramidal plinth. These capitals are highly detailed with alternating leaf motifs on the trunk and further vegetal decoration on the overhang. The entry is distinguished by an open portico with 5 arched openings; behind this lies the carved wall panels, 6.5 feet tall by 4 feet wide, framed with bands incorporating entwined geometrical pattern’s, the panel itself exhibiting a symmetrically engraved “tree of life” which sprouts upwards, flowing into branches, then leaves, and finally blossoming flowers. Apart from the main panels, the alternating arched interiors’ have related flower-patterned arabesque decoration.

The Medina al-Zahra was a luxurious and elaborate development which, as an emblem of the early Islamic caliphate in Spain, led to other similar constructions, but when the caliphate of Cordoba fell in 1031 due to civil war and the Berber uprising, the kingdom was divided into small portions known as Taifa states. The new rulers of these Taifa states were the previous heads of administration for the Cordoba caliphate; they were weak and competed in petty shows of wealth and power while the Christian kingdoms of the north were growing stronger and uniting to regain power of the peninsula. Due to their military weakness, the Taifa princess called on North African soldiers, the Berbers, to fight the Christian forces moving southwards from the northern territories. The Berbers arrived on two separate occasions; the first being after the fall of Toledo in 1085, and consequently in 1147 after the fall of Lisbon.

The Giralda
The first group of Berbers to come across were the Almoravids who took control of the Taifa states and regrouped the small kingdoms under their caliphate. This caliphate of the Almoravid lasted no longer than a century and their contribution to the culture of architecture in Spain was minimal. They did not propose to create grand palaces or courts, as a simple people very orthodox in their faith. Following suit, again from North Africa, the Almohads subsequently ruled the region for over two centuries. The Almohads were not as conventional in their belief, and it is suggested and they were lenient about indulgent living. However, the most memorable structure they constructed was the great mosque in Seville on which the cathedral of Santa Maria is now situated.

However, the most memorable structure they constructed was the great mosque in Seville on which the cathedral of Santa Maria is now situated.

All that remains of the mosque is one minaret which is known as the Giralda (named after the weathervane or Giraldilla)⁵, now a bell tower.

The architect Ahmad ibn Baso designed the minaret similar to one in Marrakech the second in Algeria. By looking at the Giralda we can see the interchange of cultures in what is essentially a very large column. Like the other buildings which underwent changes and alterations, this single structure was also changed over time but only in terms of ornamentation to suit the juxtaposed faiths at different times. The building of the tower begun in 1184 on deep ashlar foundations rising above ground in reused stone, and was completed in brick in 1198 by Ahmad ibn Baso’s apprentice, Abu Yusuf Ya’qub. The base of the tower measures 16m squared and rises around a brick core 50 meters high until it reaches its later addition. The minaret turn bell tower was built and rebuilt in four stages until its concluding redesign in 1568 by Hernan Ruiz. Initially the tower was not as tall as it is today; its highest point was originally situated a few feet before the bell room begins. This point is decorated by an interlocking arcade, which is the face of the cornice but does not continue down the building or into the structure; it is a purely decorative form.

Above the cornice now lies a complex renaissance balcony arrangement with a total of twenty-six bells; higher small spherical features reach further upwards towards a central chamber containing the largest bell. In elevation it is divided horizontally into two sets of three vertical planes, which vary in height. The middle planes are decorated by arched horseshoes locked in by multi-lobed arches with small suspended verandas. Closer to the base are minuscule window openings which sit under covered arches that used to be exposed. Similar are the upper planes which have twin blinded arches followed by diagonal interlocking latticework framed by a single line of brickwork.

Inside the tower there are the seven rooms representing the seven heavens; these are approached by gently sloping ramps, instead of numerous steps and a confusion of stairways. In total there are thirty five inclined ramps, wide enough to cater for two mounted guards passing side by side. We can begin to note how metaphorical interpretations of the heavens have influenced the design of these room’s, instigated by the lavish architecture of the Moorish movement which would follow. The architecture of this Moorish period came to be known as the architecture of the veil, referring to the decorative fabric created by the exterior of the building, similar to the quality found in elegant gardens and courtyards.

With the more puritanical and conformist buildings of the earlier Almohad and Almoravid dynasties as well as the Cordoban caliphate analysed, we can now move on to the elaborate and decorative forms of Moorish architecture and observe how they differed in style, influenced by a metaphorical philosophy originating from Sufi mysticism (the expression of an unorthodox sect of Islam). This new inspiration in Moorish architecture often seems excessive in lavishness, and this opinion is voiced by many historians and architecture critics. However Owen Jones (Architect and British intellectual of the 19th century) comments that the first principle of architecture is, 'To decorate construction and never to construct decoration; Ornamentation that is constructed falsely can never achieve beauty or harmony.'⁶

It is assumed that by the “principles of architecture” Jones implies one must follow these set of laws. In order of importance the decoration of construction is primary; this states that the décor of the building should be part of the structure (walls should work structurally and aesthetically and surplus decoration such as arbitrary sculpture, deceptively constructed to create attraction, does not achieve the same coherence). With regard to Moorish, and primarily Mudejar, technique he writes, 'We never find a useless or superfluous ornament; every ornament arises quietly and naturally from the surface decorated.'

In the next article I intend to discuss the two accounts, particularly buildings of this architecture and with examples distinguish their validity within Mudejar archetypes. Mudejar comes from the word “mudayan”, meaning domesticated, with reference to Muslims who chose to reside in re-conquered Christian areas.

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